は英語発音指導に関して英語母語話者の教師あるいは研究者が、実証研究からあるいは理論研究からの知見を紹介している文献です。
今回、LETのワークショップで使うために、そこから私が「いいね！）」、と思った箇所をピックアップしましたので、貼り付けておきます。一部、「これは違うね！」と私が思った箇所もあり、それはそう書いてあります。
また、このピックアップはあくまで私の目のフィルターを通したピックアップであって、partial なセレクションであることを断っておきます。
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Contents
Prologue to the myths: What teachers need to
know (Grant)
Myth 1. Once you have been
speaking a second language for years, it's too late to change your
pronunciation. (Derwing & Munro)
Myth 2. Pronunciation
instruction is not appropriate for beginning-level learners. (Zielinski &
Yates)
Myth 3. Pronunciation teaching
has to establish in the minds of language learners a set of distinct consonant
and vowel sounds. (Field)
Myth 4. Intonation is hard to
teach. (Gilbert)
Myth 5. Students would make
better progress in pronunciation if they just practiced more. (Grant)
Myth 6. Accent reduction and
pronunciation instruction are the same thing. (Thomson)
Myth 7. Teacher training
programs provide adequate preparation in how to teach pronunciation. (Murphy)
Epilogue to the myths: Best practices for
teachers (Brinton)
0.
Prologue
0.1
発音指導はカリキュラムの他の部分と無関係にはできない
"Because of the interrelatedness between pronunciation and
skills like speaking and listening, experts agree that pronunciation can no
longer be taught in a "vacuum" apart from other segments of the
curriculum."(p.6)
>>Grant, L. (2014). Prologue to the myths.
0.2
発音指導はすなわちリスニング指導でもある
"… when we teach listening, we often overlook the flip-side --
the role pronunciation plays in supporting listening instruction …. When
students are taught speech sounds, word stress, reductions, and connected
speech, they are also learning how to decode the speech stream and segment it
into recognizable words” (p.7)
>>Grant, L. (2014). Prologue to the myths.
0.3
セグメンタルを決めるのはスプラセグメンタル
"even though we may teach the suprasegmental and the segmental
systems separately, we cannot view them separately"(p.27)
“. . . the clarity of the segmentals was dictated by the relative
importance of the words to the message. In essence, the suprasegmental system
was “calling the shots.” “Segmentals
must be somehow very underspecified until their exact places and roles in the
discourse have been determined, and only then do they get their final
characteristics” (←citing e-mail communication with Kjellin 2004).
>>Grant, L. (2014). Prologue to the myths.
1.
Myth 1
1.1
最初の１年が最も大事
“Don’t wait for fossilization to happen.”(p.51)
… much of the development of a learner’s L2 phonological system
takes place within the first year. An explicit focus on pronunciation in
language classes, based on intelligibility priorities during the first year,
will make intervention for fossilized patterns several years later unnecessaryそうすれば後で苦労しない
>> Derwing, T. and Munro, M.J. (2014). Myth1
1.2
発音Feedbackは明示的にせよ
"…it is becoming increasingly clear that a key factor in the
success of [pronunciation] instruction is the provision of explicit corrective
feedback." (p.47)
"there is no indication that, after the first year in the
target language country, pronunciation will improve to any significant extent
under conditions of exposure alone." (p.47)
"To defossilize speech patterns that interfere with intelligibility
and/or comprehensibility, explicit corrective feedback for both perception and
production tasks is required." (p.47)
>> Derwing, T. and Munro, M.J. (2014). Myth 1
2. Myth 2
2.1
発音が悪いと自信がなく、英語力も伸びない、だから最初から発音を！
Pronunciation difficulties affected intelligibility and confidence
to speak or caused them to avoid speaking altogether (Zielinski, 2011)
Pronunciation difficulties had a negative impact on their
interactions in English (Zielinski 2012)
自信がない→練習しない→上達しない
→ "it is, therefore, of utmost
importance that pronunciation instruction be of an integral part of the process
of learning English from the beginning and not regarded as an option added at a
later stage.”(p.59)
>>Zielinski, B. & Yate, L.
(2014). Myth 2
2.2
フィードバックは「その場」と「後で」を使い分けよ
at the control or practice stage → give immediate explicit feedback
"at the extension stage（自作の対話文、皆の前で発表時）, we
would be ill-advised to shatter their confidence or potentially embarrass them
in front of the class by drawing attention to incorrect pronunciations." →
そういう時は、provide delayed feedback when the rest of the class is usefully
engaged in another activity (p.70)
>>Zielinski, B. & Yate, L. (2014). Myth 2
>>Zielinski, B. & Yate, L. (2014). Myth 2
（靜コメント：それでは効果はない。extension stageでこそ、「ほらそこ！」と指摘しなければ直らない）
2.3
すべての授業で発音を扱い発音ゴールを意識せよ
“Integrate pronunciation into every lesson and always have
pronunciation goal” (p.71)
"… always have a pronunciation goal in mind regardless of what
we are teaching" (p. 71)
>>Zielinski, B. & Yate, L.
(2014). Myth 2:
2.4
初心者は発音を直されるのを歓迎した
"Baker (2011) found that the beginning-level learners in her
study wanted feedback from their teachers on their pronunciation and liked
being corrected, even if this occurred within earshot of their classmates."
(p.69)
>>Zielinski, B. & Yate, L. (2014). Myth 2
2.5
通じるのか通じないのかはっきり、何を直すべきか具体的に
"Students need to know when their pronunciation is intelligible
and when it is not. If they do need to change some aspect of their
pronunciation, they need to know _what_ to change and how to change it.
Feedback needs to be targeted to the learners' needs." (p.68)
>>Zielinski, B. & Yate, L.
(2014). Myth 2:
3.
Myth 3
3.1
音素の多様な異音を頭のなかに蓄積させるが大切。だから単音レベルではなく、音節やチャンクレベルの聞き取り、発音練習が必要だろう
… exposing learners the phonemes of a second language in many
different realisations. (p.96)
“the point is that the sounds of speech are so variable that it may
only be through learning to identify them in larger units that the leaners can
come to terms with the many different forms a particular phoneme is like to
take.” (p.94)
>>Field, J. (2014). Myth 3:
4.
Myth 4
4.1
発音指導は英語指導のなかの「孤児」だった
“pronunciation has been something of an orphan in English language
teaching for almost four decades.” (p.112)
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4:
4.2
英語は多言語より意味区別をプロソディに頼る
English depends more than most other languages on musical signals
(prosody) for this crucial task = calling attention to the point that the
speaker most wants to the listener to focus on
Ex. THIS is my bag. Vs. Kore-ga watashino kaban desu. (p.121)
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4
4.3
プロソディはNSにはあまりに自然（１歳までに獲得）で意識できない
… people rarely recognize the source of misunderstanding （プロソディの文化差によって引き起こされる誤解）
because the basic signals of rhythm and melody specific to
one’s L1 are generally learned by the time a child is one year old. (p.111)
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4:
4.4
プロソディの誤りは深刻な社会的（人間関係）誤解を起こすことがある
failure to learn the “musical signals” of English can (also) have
serious social consequences (p.111)
例：ロンドンのカフェテリアの、インド人店員とイギリス人客
Drop in pitch = this is the end of what I have to say（イギリス人）
Drop in pitch = they are about to make the main point （いつかかのインドの言語）
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4
4.5
すべての語を強調しては強調しないのと一緒・興奮しやすいと思われる
“if the learner loudly emphasizes every word in an eagerness to be
understood, the listener may think the speaker is just excitable.” (p.119)
A white butterfly among shaded flowers is easier to see than a
shaded butterfly in shaded flowers
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4
4.6
プロソディの役割は、聞き手が情報を追いやすくすること
“intonationally emphasized words are easier to hear” (p.131)
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4
4.7
プロソディは（１）新情報を目立たせ（２）意味グループを作って処理しやすくする
the main two uses of prosody = highlighting new information and
separating thought groups for listeners (p.124)
a. John said, “The boss is an idiot!”
b. “John,” said the Boss, “is an idiot!” (p.125)
a. I prefer beef SOUP. Not
stew?
b. I prefer BEEF soup. Not chicken? (p.126)
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4:
4.8
質の良いリピートはプロソディを身に付けるために重要
“Through quality repetition
of a template sentence, students are given ample opportunity to absorb into
their personal long-term memory banks an accurate sample of spoken English in
which all the levels of the prosodic system are present.”(p.130)
“A solidly memorized accurate template is probably the most useful
reference tool a student can possess” (p.130)
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4
4.9
身体動作をつかった補強は強力な武器だ（手をあげたり、歩いたり！）
"Kinesthetic reinforcement is a powerful tool" [for
teaching intonation]
"You can ask students to raise hands, or even raise their
eyebrows with the primary stress as they say a word or sentence"
"if there is a space, you can actually get them to do a
“walkabout” of the room, in physical synchrony with the rhythm and emphasis of
the sentence they are repeating. This has a major advantage of also being
fun." (p.131)
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4
4.10
Kazooはピッチパタンの提示によい
[If you use a kazoo,] you reproduce the pitch pattern stripped of
distractions of grammar, vocabulary, and individual words (p.131)
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4
4.11
ストレスのある母音を伸ばすこと学ぶのは極めて重要
“The rhythm of many languages depends on a relatively regular length
of all syllables, whereas English rhythm depends on irregular length. One of
the most important functions of lengthening a syllable in English is to give
the listener time to notice the emphasis. Therefore, the English cue of
lengthening must be learned” (p.132)
“It is necessary to train students to notice the English way of
using length difference and the change of pitch on the peak vowel of the
primary stress of the most important word” (p.133)
>>Gilbert, J. (2014). Myth 4:
5.
Myth 5
5.1
英語教師になるならより高い発音レベルが必要
A student who intends to teach English or provide call-center
computer support by phone, for example, may want to attain a higher level of
pronunciation accuracy than someone who expects to return to the home country
and use English only occasionally with other non-native speakers. (p.150)
>>Grant, L. (2014). Myth 5
5.2
ネイティブのような発音だとアイデンティティが脅かされる
"…long-term speech characteristics can become an integral part
of who we are. In the case of L2 learners, losing a first language accent or
sounding more like a native speaker of English may threaten the sense of
self." (p.138)
靜コメント：こんなことは日本人の場合にはある？
>>Grant, L. (2014). Myth 5
5.3
意識・無意識でできるレベルを分けて考える
Four levels of competence
Level 1: Unconsciously incompetent
Level 2: Aware of the new pronunciation features but has limited
ability to use the features or correct the error
Level 3: during controlled and guided practice, can use the feature
and correct the error (only when conscious of it)
Level 4: unconsciously competent. Can correct without thinking about
it. (p.152)
これを示して、進歩しているのだよ、と元気づけよ、という話
靜コメント：靜(2009)の will do stage が level 4, can do stage が level 3 にあたる。
>>Grant, L. (2014). Myth 5:
6. Myth 6 ピンと来た箇所、なし
7.
Myth 7
7.1 NNS教師のほうが発音指導に有利な点がある
The truth is, NNESs have several advantages over NESs when it comes
to pronunciation teaching. (1) know the
experience of learning the pronunciation of English firsthand. à more likely to understand the process of acquiring English
pronunciation from a learner’s perspective.
(2) … more likely to be perceived as attainable by students (p.205)
>>Murphy, J. (2014). Myth 7
8. Epilogue
8.1
セグメンタルはやはり大切。ただし精選し、かつプロソディと統合的に扱うべし。
"Research findings: Segmentals, long considered the staples of
pronunciation instruction, are critical building blocks of the sound
system." (p.232)
" . . . Does all this imply that the teaching of segmentals
constitutes wasted time in the classroom? I'd suggest not. Teaching segmentals
is still important and for many learners, difficulties producing the vowels
and consonants of English may be a significant part of their foreign accent as
well as a barrier to their intelligibility. However, we should teach
segmentals selectively, . . . And most
importantly, the teaching of segmentals should be integrated into an overall
pronunciation curriculum that also recognizes the importance of the
suprasegmental aspect of the language." (p.232)
>>Brinton, D. M. (2014). Epilogue to the myths
